Constitutional monarchy

Published on Saturday, January 21st 2006. Edited by Say Cubpinrow, Changsha, China.

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A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of constitutional government, wherein either an elected or hereditary monarch is the head of state, unlike in an absolute monarchy, wherein the king or the queen is the sole source of political power, as he or she is not legally bound by the national constitution. The constitutional monarchy’s government and its law are the government and the law of a limited monarchy. Most constitutional monarchies have a parliamentary system (the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, Malaysia, Thailand) in which the monarch is the head of state, but a directly- or indirectly-elected prime minister is head of government. Although contemporary constitutional monarchies mostly are representative, constitutional democratic monarchies, monarchies have co-existed with fascist and quasi-fascist constitutions (Italy, Japan, Spain) and with military dictatorships (Thailand).

Constitutional monarchies and Absolute monarchies

Constitutional monarchy in the European tradition

Constitutional monarchy occurred in Europe after the French revolution. General Napoleon Bonaparte is considered the first monarch proclaiming himself as embodiment of the nation, rather than as a divinely-appointed ruler; this interpretation of monarchy is basic to continental constitutional monarchies. G.W.F. Hegel, in Philosophy of Right (1820) justified it philosophically, according well with evolving contemporary political theory and with the Protestant Christian view of Natural Law. Hegel forecast a constitutional monarch of limited powers, whose function is embodying the national character and constitutional continuity in emergencies, per the development of constitutional monarchy in Europe and Japan. Moreover, the ceremonial office of president (e.g. European and Israeli parliamentary democracies), is a contemporary type of Hegel’s constitutional monarch (whether elected or appointed), yet, his forecast of the form of government suitable to the modern world might be perceived as prophetic. The Russian and French presidents, with their stronger powers, might be Hegelian, wielding power suited to the national will embodied.

“The Brabançonne”, Belgium’s national anthem, written shortly after publication of Philosophy of Right, ends with a pledge of loyalty to: Le Roi, la Loi, la Liberté! [The King, the Law, and Liberty!], said anthem might be counterpart to the French: Liberté, égalité, fraternité, with French Republican sentiment replaced with Belgian monarchical sentiment.

Modern constitutional monarchy

As originally conceived, a constitutional monarch was quite a powerful figure, head of the executive branch even though his or her power was limited by the constitution and the elected parliament. Some of the framers of the US Constitution may have conceived of the president as being an elected constitutional monarch, as the term was understood in their time, following Montesquieu’s somewhat dated account of the separation of powers in the United Kingdom ; although the term “president” at that time implied someone with the powers of the chairman of a committee of equals, like the rotating “president” of the congress under the Articles of Confederation.

An evolution in political thinking would, however, eventually spawn such phenomena as universal suffrage and political parties. By the mid 20th century, the political culture in Europe had shifted to the point where most constitutional monarchs had been reduced to the status of figureheads, with no effective power at all. Instead, it was the democratically elected parliaments, and their leader, the prime minister who had become those who exercised power. In many cases even the monarchs themselves, while still at the very top of the political and social hierarchy, were given the status of “servants of the people” to reflect the new, egalitarian view.

In present terms, the difference between a parliamentary democracy that is a constitutional monarchy, and one that is a republic, is considered more a difference of detail than of substance, particularly in the common case in which the head of state serves the traditional role of embodying and representing the nation. This is reflected, for example, in all but the most die-hard Spanish Republicans accepting their country’s returning to constitutional monarchy after the death of Francisco Franco.

Constitutional monarchies today

Constitutional monarchies with representative parliamentary systems are shown in red. Other constitutional monarchies (shown in violet) have monarchs who continue to exercise political influence, albeit within certain legal restrictions. Constitutional monarchies in beige (currently only one nation, Thailand) are constitutional monarchies in which the constitution has been suspended.

Today constitutional monarchies are mostly associated with Western European countries such as the United Kingdom, The Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Denmark, Spain, Luxembourg, Monaco, Liechtenstein, and Sweden. In such cases it is the prime minister who holds the day-to-day powers of governance, while the King or Queen (or other monarch, such as a Grand Duke, in the case of Luxembourg, or Prince in the case of Monaco and Liechtenstein) retains only minor to no powers. Different nations grant different powers to their monarchs. In the Netherlands, Denmark and in Belgium, for example, the Monarch formally appoints a representative to preside over the creation of a coalition government following a parliamentary election, while in Norway the King chairs special meetings of the cabinet.

The most significant family of constitutional monarchies in the world today are the sixteen realms, all independent parliamentary democracies in a personal union relationship under Elizabeth II. Unlike some of their continental European counterparts, the Monarch and her Governors-General in the Commonwealth Realms hold significant “reserve” or “prerogative” powers, to be wielded in times of extreme emergency or constitutional crises usually to uphold parliamentary government. An instance of a Goveror General exercising his power was during the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, where the Australian Prime Minister of the time, Gough Whitlam was effectively fired from his position, this led to much speculation that Australia should become a republic.

In both the United Kingdom and elsewhere, a common debate centers around when it is appropriate for a monarch to use his or her political powers. When a monarch does act, political controversy can often ensue, partially because the neutrality of the crown is seen to be compromised in favour of a partisan goal. While political scientists may champion the idea of an “interventionist monarch” as a check against possible illegal action by politicians, the monarchs themselves are often driven by a more pragmatic sense of self-preservation, in which avoiding political controversy can be seen as an important way to retain public legitimacy and popularity.

There also exists today several federal constitutional monarchies. In these countries, each subdivision has a distinct government and head of government, but all subdivisions share a monarch who is head of state of the federation as a united whole.

List of current reigning monarchies

State Last constitution established Type of monarchy Monarch selected by

 Andorra 1993 Co-Principality Selection of Bishop of La Seu d'Urgell and election of French President

 Bahrain 2002 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Belgium 1831 Kingdom; popular monarchy Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Bhutan 2007 Kingdom Hereditary succession

 Brunei Sultanate Hereditary succession

 Cambodia 1993 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Denmark 1953 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Japan 1946 Empire Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Jordan 1952 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Kuwait 1962 Emirate Hereditary succession directed approval of al-Sabah family and majority of National Assembly

 Lesotho 1993 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed approval of College of Chiefs

 Liechtenstein 1862 Principality Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Luxembourg 1868 Grand duchy Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Malaysia 1957 Elective monarchy Selected from nine hereditary Sultans of the Malay states

 Monaco 1911 Principality Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Morocco 1962 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Netherlands 1815 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Norway 1814 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Oman Sultanate Hereditary succession

 Qatar Emirate Hereditary succession

 Saudi Arabia Kingdom Hereditary succession

 Spain 1978 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Swaziland Kingdom Hereditary succession

 Sweden 1974 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Thailand 2007 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Tonga 1970 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 United Arab Emirates 1971 Elective monarchy Chosen by Federal Supreme Council from rulers of Abu Dhabi

 United Kingdom 1688 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Antigua and Barbuda 1981 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Australia 1977 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 The Bahamas 1973 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Barbados 1966 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Belize 1981 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Canada 1982 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Grenada 1974 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Jamaica 1962 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 New Zealand 1987 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Papua New Guinea 1975 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Saint Kitts and Nevis 1983 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Saint Lucia 1979 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1979 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Solomon Islands 1978 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

 Tuvalu 1978 Kingdom Hereditary succession directed by constitution

Previous monarchies

• The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, formed after the Union of Lublin in 1569 and lasting till the final partition of the state in 1795 operated much like many modern European constitutional monarchies. The legislators of the unified state truly did not see it as a monarchy at all, but as a republic under the presidency of the King. Poland-Lithuania also followed the principle of “Rex regnat et non gubernat”, had a bicameral parliament, and a collection of entrenched legal documents amounting to a constitution along the lines of the modern United Kingdom. The King was elected, and had the duty of maintaining the people’s rights.
• France functioned briefly as a constitutional monarchy during the post-Napoleonic era, under the reign of Louis XVIII and Charles X, but the latter’s attempt at reinstating absolute monarchy led to his fall. Louis-Philippe of France was also a constitutional monarch.
• Napoléon Bonaparte, as Emperor of the French, was in theory a constitutional monarch, though he was ousted from France before his line could continue. In practice, however, he is often classed as a military dictator, whose power derived primarily from his command of the army.
• The German Empire from 1871 to 1918, (as well as earlier confederations, and the monarchies it consisted of) was also a constitutional monarchy—see Constitution of the German Empire.
• Prior to the Iranian Revolution in 1978, Iran was a constitutional monarchy under Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, which had been originally established during the Persian Constitutional Revolution in 1906.
• Portugal until 1910 was a constitutional monarchy; the last king was Manuel II of Portugal until he was overthrown by a military coup.
• Brazil from 1815 (United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves) until 1822, with the proclamation of independence and rise of the Empire of Brazil by Pedro I of Brazil. After this the Empire had ended in 1889, during the reign of Pedro II of Brazil, when the emperor was deposed by a military coup.
• Hawaiʻi was a constitutional monarchy from the unification of the smaller independent chiefdoms of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, and the Hawaiʻi (or the “Big Island”) in 1810 until the overthrow of Queen Liliʻuokalani in 1893 by conspirators from United States that threatened her that, should she not resign, her people would suffer greatly.
• The Grand Duchy of Finland was a constitutional monarchy though its ruler, Alexander I, who was simultaneously an autocrat and absolute ruler in Russia.
• The Kingdom of Hungary in 1848–1849 and 1867–1918 as part of Austria-Hungary. In the interwar period (1920–1944) Hungary remained a constitutional monarchy without a reigning monarch.
• Yugoslavia until 1945 when King Peter was deposed by the communist government.
• Romania until 1947 when King Michael was forced to abdicate at gunpoint by the communists.
• Bulgaria until 1946 when Tsar Simeon was deposed by the communist assembly without consultation of the people.
• Greece until 1967 when King Constantine was deposed by the military government. The decision was formalised by a plebiscite in 05/04/1974.
• Many Commonwealth republics were constitutional monarchies in personal union with the Commonwealth realms for some period after their independence.

Other situations

• Japan is the only country with a reigning emperor.
• Luxembourg is the only country with a reigning Grand Duke.
• Andorra, Monaco and Liechtenstein are the only countries with a reigning Prince.
• Andorra is the only country where the head of state is vested jointly in two individuals.
• Australia, whose constitution demands legislation for the holding of a referendum where a majority of votes in a majority of 6 states must occur for any change to take place. In 1999 a referendum was held to change the country into a republic and was defeated.

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